Response in the Living and Non-Living

Conditions of obtaining quantitative measurements.— In order to carry out these investigations, it is necessary to remove all sources of uncertainty, and obtain quantitative measurements. Many difficulties at first presented themselves in the course of this attempt, but they were completely removed by the adoption of the following experimental modification. In the simple arrangement for qualitative demonstration of response in metals previously described, successive experiments will not give results which are strictly comparable (1) unless the resistance of the circuit be maintained constant. This would necessitate the adoption of some plan for keeping the electrolytic contacts at A and B absolutely invariable. There should then be no chance of any shifting or variation of contact. (2) There must also be some means of applying successive stimuli of equal intensity. (3) And for certain further experiments it will be necessary to have some way of gradually increasing or decreasing the stimuli in a definite manner.

Modification of the block method.—By consideration of the following experimental modifications of the block method (fig. 55), it will be found easy to construct a perfected form of apparatus, in which all these conditions are fully met. The essentials to be kept in mind were the introduction of a complete block midway in the wire, so that the disturbance cf one half should be prevented from reaching the other, and the making of a perfect electrolytic contact for the electrodes leading to the galvanometer.

Starting from the simple arrangement previously described where a straight wire is clamped in the middle (fig. 55, a), we next arrive at (b). Here the wire A Bis placed in a U tube and clamped in the middle by a tightly fitting cork. Melted paraffin wax is poured to a certain depth in the bend of the tube. The two limbs of the tube are now filled with water, till the ends A and B are completely immersed. Connection is made with the non-polarisable electrodes by the side tubes. Vibration may be imparted to either A or B by means of ebonite clip holders seen at the upper ends A B of the wire.

Fie. 55.—SuccesstvE Mopirications oF THE Buock MrTHOD FROM THE ‘SrraicHt Wire’ (a) to ‘ CeLu Form’ (e) When A is excited, current of response in the wire is from less excited B to more excited A. Note that though the current of response is constant in direction, the galvanometer deflection in (d) will be opposite to that in (bd). It will be seen that the two limbs of the tube filled with water serve the purpose of the strip of moistened cloth used in the last experiment to make electric connections with the leading-out electrodes—with the advantage that we have here no chance of any shifting of contact or variation of surface, the contact between

the wire and the surroundine liquid being perfect and invariable. On now vibrating the end A of the tin wire by means of the ebonite clip holder, a current will be found to flow from B to A through the wire—that is to say, towards the excited—and from A to B in the galvanometer. The next modification (c) is to transfer the galvanometer from the electrolytic to the metallic part of the circuit, that is to say, it 1s interposed in a gap made by cutting the wire A B, the upper part of the circuit being directly connected by the electrolyte. Vibration of A will now give rise to a current of response which flows in the metallic part of the circuit with the interposed galvanometer from B to A. We see that though the direction of the current in this is the same as in the last case, yet the galvanometer deflection is now reversed, for the evident reason that we have it interposed in the metallic and not in the electrolytic part of the cireuit.

The next arrangement (d@) consists simply of the preceding placed upside down. Here a and B are held parallel to each other in an electrolytic bath (water). Mechanical vibration may now be applied to A without affecting B, and vice versa. The actual apparatus, of which this is a diagrammatic representation, 1s seen in (é). Two pieces, from the same specimen of wire, are clamped separately at their lower ends by means of ebonite screws, in an L-shaped piece of ebonite. The wires are fixed at their upper ends to two electrodes—

leading to the galvanometer—and kept moderately and uniformly stretched by spiral springs. The handle, by which a torsional vibration is imparted to the wire, may be slipped over either electrode. The amplitude of vibration is measured by means of a graduated circle. (1) That the cell depicted in (@) is essentially the same as that in (a). (2) That the wires in the cell being immersed to a definite depth in the electrolyte there is always a perfect and invariable contact between the wire and the electrolyte. The difficulty as regards variation of contact is thus eliminated.

(3) That as the wires A and B are clamped separately below, we may impart a sudden molecular disturbance to either A or B by giving a quick to-and-fro (torsional) vibration round the vertical wire, as axis, by means of the handle. As the wire A is separate from B, disturbance of one will not affect the other. Vibration of A produces a current in one direction, vibration of B in the opposite direc- Fie. 56.—Equat anp OpposttE Re- tion. Thus we have means

of verifying every experiment by obtaining corroborative and reversed effects. When the two wires have been brought to exactly the same molecular condition by the processes of annealing or stretching, the effects obtained on subjecting A or B to any given stimulus are always equal (fig. 56). Usually I interpose an external resistance varying from one to five megohms according to the sensitiveness of the wire. The resistance of the electrolyte in the cell is thus relatively small, and the galvanometer deflections are proportional to the E.M. variations. It is always advisable to have a high external resistance, as by this means one is not only able to keep the deflections within the scale, but one is not troubled by slight accidental disturbances.

Graduation of intensity of stimulus.—If now a rapid torsional vibration be given to A or B, an E.M. variation Fic. 57.—Tor View or rae Visnation’ 1s increased, response poet will also become enhanced mined by means of movable stops fee 8S’, fixed to the edge of the gra- (see Chap. AV): duated circle G. The index arm : | =o I plays between the stops. (The Amplitude of vibration second index arm, connected with B, and the second circle are not shown.)

is measured by means of the eraduated circle (fig. 57). A projecting index, in connection with the vibration-head, plays between fixed and sliding stops (S and $’), one at the zero point of the seale, and the other movable. The amplitude of a given vibration can thus be predetermined by the adjustment of the sliding stop. In this way we can obtain either uniform or definitely eraduated stimuli. Considerations showing that electric response is due to molecular disturbance.—The electromotive variation varies with the substance. With superposition of stimul, a relatively high value is obtained in tin, amounting sometimes to nearly half a volt, whereas in silver the electromotive variation is only about ‘01 of this value. The intensity of the response, however, does not depend on the chemical activity of the substance, for the electromotive variation in the relatively chemically inactive tin is greater than that of zine. Again, the sign of response, positive or negative, is sometimes modified by the molecular condition of the wire (see Chap. XII).

As regards the electrolyte, dilute NaCl solution, dilute solution of bichromate of potash &c. are normal in their action, that is to say, the electric response in such electrolytes is practically the same as with water. Ordinarily I use tap-water as the electrolyte. Zinc wires in ZnSO, solution give responses similar in character to those given by, for example, Pt or Sn in water. Test experiment.—It may be urged that the E.M. effect is due in some way (1) to the friction of the vibrating wire against the liquid; or (2) to some unknown surface action, at the point in the wire of the contact of liquid and air surfaces. This second

mental modification, fig. 55, 6, where the wire was shown to give response when kept completely immersed in water, variation of surface being thus entirely eliminated. Both these questions may, however, be subjected to a definite and final test. When the wire to be acted on is clamped below, and vibration is imparted to it, a strong molecular disturbance is produced. If now it be carefully released from the clamp, and the wire rotated backwards and forwards, there could be little molecular disturbance, but the liquid friction and surface variation, if any, would remain. The effect of any shght disturbance outstanding owing to shaking of the wire would be relatively very small.

We can thus determine the effect of liquid friction and surface action by repeating an experiment with and without clamping. In a tin wire cell, with interposed external resistance equal to one million ohms, the wire A was subjected to a series of vibrations through 180°, and a deflection of 210 divisions was obtained. A corresponding negative deflection resulted on vibrating the wire 8B. Now A was released from the clamp, so that it could be rotated backwards and forwards in the water by means of the handle. On vibrating the wire A no measurable deflection was produced, thus showing that neither water friction nor surface variation had anything to do with the electric action. The vibration of the still clamped B gave rise to the normal strong deflection.

As all the rest of the circuit was kept absolutely the same in the two different sets of experiments, these results conclusively prove that the responsive electro- ‘motive variation is solely due to the molecular disturbance produced by mechanical vibration in the acted wire. A new and theoretically interesting molecular voltaic cell may thus be made, in which the two elements consist of the same metal. Molecular disturbance is in this case the main source of energy. A cell once made may be kept in working order for some time by pouring in a little vaseline to prevent evaporation of the liquid.

It will be shown further, in succeeding chapters, by numerous instances, that any conditions which increase molecular mobility will also increase intensity of response, and conversely that any conditions having the reverse effect will depress response. I SHALL now proceed to describe in detail the responsecurves obtained with metals. The E.M. variations resulting from ‘stimulus range, as has been said, from ‘4 volt to ‘01 of that value, according to the metal employed. And as these are molecular phenomena, the effect will also depend on the molecular condition of the wire.

Preparation of wire.—In order to have our results thoroughly consistent, it 1s necessary to bring the wire itself into a normal condition for experiment. The very fact of mounting it in the cell strains it, and the after-effect of this strain may cause irregularities in ‘the response. For the purpose of bringing the, wire to this normal state, one or all of the following devices may be used with advantage. (1) The wires obtained are usually wound on spools. It is, therefore, advisable to straighten any given length, before mounting, by holding it stretched, and rubbing it up and down with a piece of cloth. On washing with water, they are now ready for mounting in the cell.

(2) The cell is usually filled with tap-water, and a period of rest after making up, generally speaking, improves the sensitiveness. These expedients are ordinarily sufficient, but it occasionally happens that the wire has got into an abnormal condition. In this case it will be found helpful (3) to have recourse to the process of annealing. For if response be a molecular phenomenon, then anything that increases molecular mobility will also increase its

Fic. 58.—Errect oF ANNEALING ON INCREASING THE RESPONSE OF BOTH A AND B Wires (Try) Stimuli (vibration of 160°) applied at intervals of one minute. intensity. Hence we may expect annealing to enhance responsiveness. This inference will be seen verified in the record given in fig. 58. In the case under consideration, the convenient method employed was by pouring hot water into the cell, and allowing it to stand and cool slowly. The first three pairs of responses were taken by stimulating A and B alternately, on mounting in the cell, which was filled with water. Hot water was then substituted, and the cell was

allowed to cool down to its original temperature. The six following pairs of responses were then taken. That this beneficial effect of annealing was not due to any accidental circumstance will be seen from the fact that both wires have their sensitiveness equally enhanced. (4) In addition to this mode of annealing, both wires may be short-circuited and vibrated for a time. Lastly (5) shght stretching 7m sztw will also sometimes be found beneficial. For this purpose I have a screw arrangement.

By one or all of these methods, with a little practice, it is always possible to bring the wires to a normal condition. The responses subsequently obtaimed become extraordinarily consistent. There is therefore no reason why perfect results should not be arrived at. Effect of single stimulus.—The accompanying figure (fig. 59) gives a series, each of which is the responsecurve for a single stimulus of uniform intensity, the amplitude of vibration being kept constant. The perfect regularity of responses will be noticed in this figure. The wire

after a long period of rest may be in Fic. 59.—Usirorm Re- an abnormal condition, but after a short period of stimulation the responses become extremely regular, as may be noticed in this figure. Tin is, usually speaking, almost indefatigable, and I have often obtained several hundreds of successive responses showing practically no fatigue. In the figure it will be noticed that the rising portion of the curve is somewhat steep, and the recovery convex to the abscissa, the fall being relatively rapid in its first, and less rapid in its later, parts. As the electric variation is the concomitant effect of molecular disturbance—a temporary upset of the molecular equilibrium—on the cessation of the external stimulus, the excitatory state, and its expression in electric variation, disappear with the return of the molecules to their condition of equilibrium. This process is seen clearly in the curve of recovery.

Different metals exhibit different periods of recovery, and this again is modified by any influence which affects the molecular condition. That the excitatory state persists for a time even on the cessation of stimulus can be independently shown by keeping the galvanometer circuit open during the application of stimulus, and completing it at various short intervals after the cessation, when a persisting electrical effect, diminishing rapidly with time, will be apparent. ‘The rate of recovery immediately on the cessation of stimulus is rather rapid, but traces of strain persist for a short time.

Effects of molecular inertia—Prolongation of period of recovery by overstrain—Molecular model—Reduction of molecular sluggishness attended by quickened recovery and heightened response—Effect of temperature —Modification of latent period and period of recovery by the action of chemical reagents—Diphasic variation. WE have seen that the stimulation of matter causes an electric variation, and that the acted substance eradually recovers from the effect of stimulus. We shall next study how the form of response-curves is modified by various agencies.

In order to study these effects we must use, in practice, a highly sensitive galvanometer as the recorder of E.M. variations. This necessitates the use of an instrument with a comparatively long period of swing of needle, or of suspended coil (as in a D’Arsonval). Owing to inertia of the recording galvanometer, however, there is a lag produced in the records of H.M. changes. But this can be distinguished from the effect of the molecular inertia of the substance itself by comparing two successive records taken with the same instrument, in one of which the latter effect is relatively absent, and inthe other present. We wish, for example, to find out

whether the E.M. effect of mechanical stimulus is instantaneous, or,” again, whether the effect disappears immediately. We first take a galvanometer record of the sudden introduction and cessation of an E.M.F. on the circuit containing the vibration-cell (fig. 60, a). We then take a record of the E.M. effect produced by a stimulus caused by a single torsional vibration. In order to make the conditions of the two experiments as similar as possible, the disturbing E.M.F., from a potentiometer, is previously adjusted to give a

(a) Arrangement for applying a short-lived E.M.F. (b) Difference in the periods of recovery: (1) from instantaneous E.M.F.; and (2) that caused by mechanical stimulus. The torsional vibration was accomplished in a quarter of a second, and the contact with the potentiometer circuit was also made for the same length of time. The record was then taken as follows. The recording drum had a fast speed of six inches in a minute, one of the small subdivisions representing a second. The battery contact in the main potentiometer circuit was made for a quarter of a second as just mentioned and a record taken of the effect of a short-lived E.M.F.

on the circuit contaiming the cell. (2) A record was next taken of the E.M. variation produced in the cell by a single stimulus. It will be seen on comparison of the two records that the maximum effect took place relatively later in the case of mechanical stimulus, and that whereas the galvanometer recovery in the former case took place in 11 seconds, the recovery in the latter was not complete till after 60 seconds (fig. 60, 0). This shows that it takes some time for the effect of stimulus to attain its maximum, and that the effect does not disappear till after the lapse of a certain interval. The time of recovery from strain depends on the intensity of stimulus. It takes a longer time to recover from a stronger stimulus. But, other things being equal, successive recovery periods from successive stimulations of equal intensity are, generally speaking, the same.

We may now study the influence of any change in external conditions by observing the modifications it produces in the normal curve. Fic. 61.—Protoncation oF Prertop oF REcovERY AFTER OVERSTRAIN Recovery is complete in 60” when the stimulus is due to 20° vibration. But with stronger stimulus of 40° vibration, the period of recovery is prolonged recovery is delayed, as the effect of overstrain. Curve (a) is for a single stimulus due to a vibration of amplitude 20°, and curve (6) for a stimulus of 40° amplitude of vibration. It will be noticed how relatively prolonged is the recovery in the latter case. Molecular Model.— We have seen that the electric response is an outward expression of the molecular disturbance produced by the action of the stimulus. The rising part of the responsecurve thus exhibits the effect of molecular upset, and the falling part, or recovery, the restoration to equilibrium. The mechanical model (fig. 62) will help us to visualise many complex response phenomena. The molecular model consists

of a torsional pendulum—a wire with a dependent sphere. By the stimulus of a blow there is produced a torsional vibration—a response followed by recovery. The writing lever attached to the pendulum records the response-curves. The form of these curves, stimulus remaining constant, will be modified by friction ; the less the friction, the greater is the mobility. The friction may be varied by more or less raising a vessel of sand touching the pendulum. By varying the friction the following curves were obtained.