A Bipolar Theory of Living Processes

These electrostatic chains of molecules would tend to remain passively in each position until a different electric impulse forced them into a new position. We may conceive that in some such way as this the so-called higher psychic functions, memory, reason, and thought find their physical basis. On this basis we may conceive that the new-born child is unconscious because these electrolytic, facilitated pathways are not yet created. Thus we conceive of the living animal organism as an electrolytic system of cells in suspension, among which in the relation of individual cells to each other and in the relations of groups of cells to other groups there exist infinite numbers of differences in potential which are made effective for the more adaptive reactions by means of nerve connections; and for the basie but less changing reactions by means of the electrolytic solutions in which the cells are suspended.

By means of these intricate condenser-oxidation-bipolar arrangements the infinite numbers of reactions which are manifested in growth and development are made possible, from the primary reactions of the ovum to the manifold: reactions of movement, thought and memory in the adult individual. Thus if our fundamental conception is correct, the bipolar theory relates the energy of the animal to the sun’s energy. It assigns to oxidation its essential rôle of charging up the condenser films whereby the required differences in potential in the cells and in groups of cells are maintained from birth to death ; it shows why, if oxidation is withdrawn for a few minutes, the brain cells lose their difference in potential—hence their ability to drive the organism—hence to maintain that state of activity which is manifested in consciousness. Since in accordance with this theory, memory and thought are dependent upon the facilitation of discharges of energy along selective paths, diminished oxidation would produce sluggishness of mental activity.

The bipolar theory explains why life exists only in water, water being a non-conductor, the oxidating property of which excels that of any other medium, and being also the only medium with which can be formed, from the common earthy salts, the electrolytic solutions essential to life, in which the cells—batteries—are suspended. This theory explains the rôle of the monomolecular lipoid membranes. It explains the primary importance of the acid-alkali balance in all living organisms. The bipolar theory shows that the living organism is a mechanism adapted to electric control, hence susceptible of being driven by trigger action by such minute forces as a beam of light, which by trigger action discharges relays of hundreds of thousands of cell condensers, causing a massive reaction which may involve the entire organism, just as the minute force conveyed by a wireless wave may explode a mine.

Even more readily the bipolar theory interprets the trigger action of the impact of sound waves, of physical contacts. It interprets the chemical action of the infinitely small particles which cause smell and taste. It interprets the chemical reactions of fever, digestion, and respiration; and it provides a possible interpretation of the processes of memory, reason, consciousness and sleep. It identifies the mechanism of fatigue, exhaustion and restoration, of surgical shock and its prevention. It interprets the action of adrenalin. It explains the réle of acids and of alkalies in the organism. It explains the action of anesthetics. It interprets the rôle of various electrolytes. It

explains the prime importance of water for the maintenance of normal life and why water is the most potent means of restoration. It explains the rôle of the lipoid films.. It explains why universal connections among cells and organs and among the dynamic units which are the basis of protoplasm are essential. It interprets the characteristics of protoplasm itself. It provides the basis for the interpretation of the evolution of man through the ages since the first potential was created by sunlight between an infinitely small positive particle of matter of ultra-microscopic size and the common negativity of the electrolytic solutions of the sea or mud, through many forms and in constantly increasing complexities from unicellular organisms to multicellular organisms; passing through form after form; always becoming more complex until now the most complex animal organism—man—has become adapted to many of the forces of the earth and is reaching out toward the sky.

Whether or not man will evolve to higher levels or whether or not conditions will be unfolded which will defeat man’s hopes and aims; whether we are passing through protracted phases of organic life as a whole to be followed by long periods of equilibrium and death, after which the process may or may not begin again, it is needless to speculate. The prime point in its relation to our theory is that in spite of the heights to which man has risen and to which we believe he is yet to rise, and in spite of all the infinite structures whereby that height has been attained, man has not changed from the primitive pattern of his primeval unicellular ancestor.

We concede that our thesis has not been finally proven. Final proof is lacking regarding practically every point. We concede that the bipolar theory would fail to explain living processes if any other form of energy than electric energy could be proved to be adapted to construct and to operate an organism which is identical with or analogous to that of the human organism. Thus the electrie or bipolar theory would be discredited if it could be shown that any life exists without electric phenomena, without oxidation, without water or electrolytes; if there were animals, the electric stimulation of the nerves of which would not make the organs supplied by those nerves perform their

normal function; if any higher animal were found that had no nerve cells and no liver, or if living tissue were found which showed no electric capacity; if the organism contained no accelerators or inhibitors of oxidation; if any other form of energy than electric energy could receive or react to such an infinitesimal force as faint light waves; if any other force could work continuously without intervals of inactivity—sleep; if any other force could be adapted to the instantaneous stepping-up whereby the massive reactions of powerful animals are released ; if any other force should require for its operation such make- and-break mechanisms as the synapses, or an acid-alkali balance, or the division of the body mass into trillions of cells, or the presence everywhere of dielectric oil films 4/10,000,000 of a centimeter in thickness; if there were any other force whose action would fail to activate the ‘organism if the brain and spinal cord were removed or the liver excised; if any other {отсе would offer even a slight suggestion of the mechanism of memory ; if any other force existed universally in the non-living as well as the living, thus revealing the link between the living and the non-living, and providing a plausible evolution from the non-living materials of which the organism is constituted to life itself.

If any other force such as heat or light or gravitation or intermolecular force or chemical action could so universally fit into the great scheme of the living and the non-living universe as does electricity, then the electric or bipolar theory of living organisms would be without foundation. Since in its last analysis all matter is electric in nature and all force is convertible into electricity, it would indeed be diffcult to find any other form of energy that could rationally form the basis of life. If life originated through the action of the forces which engulf us, then the one force that could conceivably account for the atom, the compound, the solution, the colloid, could surround particles of matter such as form the colloids with films, could aggregate and limit forces and forms from the minutest to the most massive, must be the universal force which is everywhere present, in every form of non-living and living matter from the atom to the man and makes of each a bipolar mechanism.

Ir is obviously impossible even to approach an adequate summary of the literature pertinent to the various phases of the diseussion in this monograph. The following citations from the publieations of various investigators are made, however, because they offer striking evidence in support of various arguments presented in the text. Among the various phenomena which are discussed by Loeb, those of heliotropism are especially susceptible of an electrical interpretation.

“We must, therefore, conclude that the light produces in an eye or an element of the photosensitive skin a chemical reaction which results in the formation of a certain mass of a reaction product. This mass acts on the peripheral nerve endings and brings about an as yet unknown change in the brain elements with which these nerve endings are connected. This change in turn affects the tone or tension of the muscles with which the brain elements are connected. When the rate of photochemical reaction is the same in both eyes or in the photosensitive elements on both sides of the body, the change of tone in the symmetrical muscles of both sides of the body is the same and no change in the position or direction of motion of the organism should occur. If the rate of illumination is different in both eyes, differences in the relative tension of the symmetrical muscles occur, which make the motion to the source of light easy and in the opposite direction more Cifficult when the animal is positively heliotropic. For the negatively heliotropic animal the opposite effect will be brought about." (Loeb.)*

“Where is the heat before it appears as heat? Is it in the foods, or in the oxygen, and in what form is it? This was long a puzzling question and in some ways it still is puzzling. It may be answered tentatively and in part as follows: Both carbon and hydrogen have a great attraction for oxygen. For some reason, not at present ün- derstood, an atom of oxygen and an atom of carbon in certain conditions attract each other so strongly that to separate them much work is required. A similar attraction exists, also, between hydrogen and oxygen. Why the union between hydrogen and oxygen should be so much firmer than between other elements is not yet clear; but there is no doubt about the fact. When, therefore, they are separated, energy is consumed; and this energy is represented by the separate positions or distance apart of the atoms. It is energy of position or potential energy. It is supposed to be a condition of strain in the ether which fills all space. Light, working in the chlorophyll parts of plants, is able to bring this separation to pass. The light energy disappears and is represented by the potential energy of the system carbohydrate-oxygen. Now for some reason carbohydrate, which contains both carbon and hydrogen, does not combine readily with oxygen in spite of the great attraction between the oxygen and carbon atoms. It is as if there was some resistance in the way of their union; but under the conditions prevailing in protoplasm this resistance, whatever its nature, disappears, and now the carbon and oxygen atoms rush together with great violence, drawn by their mutual attraction. In the violence of their impact they rebound and vibrate vigorously back and forth. Sometimes this vibration is so fast and so vigorous as to give rise to light. This happens in the phosphorescent substances; in other cases the vibration is communicated to the surrounding molecules and is gradually dissipated in longer molecular vibrations, and this we call heat.” (Mathews.)*

Nernst’s application of the osmotic theory to the mechanism of current-production in solutions referred to in the text is given in the following excerpt: “In the contact between two solutions of an electrolyte of different concentrations, there is developed an electromotive force which so acts between them, that the one ion strives to pass by the other. In this way we obtained for the first time a mechanieal explanation of the potential difference between any two substances, and it became possible to calculate this value in absolute measure. . . . We сап explain mechanically in an entirely similar way, the potential difference occasioned by the contact of the solutions of any two different electrolytes.

“Thus let us bring into contact with each other a solution of HCl апа of LiBr; then, on the опе hand, more hydrogen ions than chlorin ions will diffuse from the first solution into the second, and therefore the second solution will receive a positive charge; and, on the other hand, more bromine ions than lithium ions will diffuse from the second solution into the first, because of the greater mobility of the bromine ions; and thus the positive charge of the second solution . Will be increased.

“Moreover, these electromotive forces can be calculated in absolute units of measurements, from the gas laws and the ion mobilities, for which purpose Planck has developed, by integration, the general equations given by me. “In this way we have arrived at a general method for calculating theoretically the electromotive forces of any liquid cells, provided that only dilute solutions are used, by means of the gas laws and the ionic mobilities; and, moreover, the details of mechanism by which these batteries produce the current, are now perfectly clear. .

“The general principle by means of which, as we have shown in this chapter, we have calculated the potential differences between substances may be formulated as follows. We attribute to the ions the same properties as to electrically neutral molecules; if we now consider any phenomenon which involves a change of place of molecules (molecular phenomenon), then the same process applied to free ions will usually have the consequence of separating anions and cations; this causes a potential difference. We may, of course, calculate the latter if we know the laws of the molecular phenomenon in question. On account of the enormous electrostatic capacity of the ions the quantities that are actually separated are too small to weigh.

“Thus, for example, the theory of diffusion of non-electrolytes (a molecular phenomenon) leads to the theory of potential difference between dilute solutions, since the general laws of diffusion are applied to the diffusion of electrolytes (an ionic phenomenon). The comparison of the solubility of ordinary substances with the solubility of metals leads to the much used formula for the potential difference between metal and electrolyte. . . . “We may well say that the osmotic theory has enabled us to give in many eases a thorough explanation of the mechanism by which eurrent is produced, and that we have reached a general solution of the problem of calculating electromotive forces from other phenomena which are easily observed.” (Nernst.)'

As for the osmotic pressure in colloidal solutions, Nernst makes the following pertinent statements: «At present, when we can detect a ‘head’ of pressure directly from the phenomena of diffusion, we must in all probability suppose that there is no essential difference between solutions of colloids and of erystalloids. But the extreme slowness of the diffusion of colloids indicates emphatically two things: on the one hand, the driving force must be very small, 4.e., the osmotic pressure is very small; and, on the other hand, the resistant friction experienced by the molecules in their passage through the water must be enormous; both these conditions are explained by the assumption that the colloids possess exceedingly high molecular weights.

“Now, as a matter of fact, the experiments conducted with colloid solutions show very small values for the osmotic pressure.” * The following excerpts from Loeb’s “Theory of Colloidal Be- havior” are especially pertinent to the electro-chemical theory of living processes: 5 *Donnan has shown that when a membrane separates two solutions of electrolytes one of which contains one ion which cannot diffuse through the membrane while all the other ions сап diffuse through the membrane, the result will be an unequal distribution of the diffusible ions on the opposite sides of the membrane. At equilibrium the products of the concentrations of each pair of oppositely charged diffusible ions are the same on the opposite sides of the membrane. This unequal concentration of the crystalloidal ions must give rise to potential differences and osmotic forces, and we intend to show that these forces furnish the explanation of colloidal behavior.”

“In a preliminary note on his work on globulins published in 1908, Hardy gives an interpretation of the influence of H and OH ions on the direction of migration of protein particles in an electrical field which was destined to play an important réle in colloid chemistry, since it suggested to the later workers that the H and OH ions produced their influence on the electrical charge of the protein particles through a process of adsorption. . . “А precipitate of globulin is to be conceived not as composed of molecular aggregates but of particles of gel. I have shown elsewhere that gelation and precipitation of colloidal solutions are соп- tinuous processes. These particles of gel when suspended in a fluid containing ions are penetrated by those ions. Let the fundamental assumption be that the higher the specific velocity of an ion the more readily it will become entangled within the colloidal particle. Then as Н and OH ions have by far the highest specific velocity the colloidal particle will entangle an excess of H ions in acid and thereby acquire a + charge and of OH ions in alkali and thereby acquire a — charge. These charges will decrease the surface energy of the particle and thereby lead to changes in their average

“Perrin adopted the idea that H and OH ions confer their electrical charge to colloidal particles on account of their relatively large velocity of migration, whereby they were readily adsorbed by the colloidal particle. The hypothesis of a preferential adsorption of H and OH ions by colloidal particles has since played a great róle in colloid chemistry. «In 1904 the writer of this volume offered instead of this colloidal a purely chemical view of the significance of the isoelectric point and of the cause of the influence of acids and alkalies on the direction of the migration of the colloidal particles.

“Tt seems to the writer, however, that a different view of these phenomena is possible whereby they appear in harmony with the view of electrolytic origin of the charges of colloids. The proteids are known to be amphoteric in their reaction. If they be slightly dissociable they will send H as well as OH ions into the solution. When the particles send more H ions than OH ions into the solution they will have a negative charge while they will have a positive charge when more OH ions are given off than H ions. If acid is added to the solution in sufficient concentration the amphoteric colloidal particle will send more OH ions into the solution than H ions and hence, will assume a positive charge. The reverse will be the case in an alkaline solution. It harmonizes with this idea that, as Hardy found, neutral salts do not influence the sign of the electrical charge of the globulins.’ "

“We may consider a protein solution inside a collodion bag and surrounded by a watery solution as a model of a protein micella suspended in a watery solution. In that case it can be shown that the electrical charge of such a model varies in exactly the same way as the charges of colloidal particles in suspension, e.g., coagulated egg albumin. “4. The electrical charge of the micella model (4e., gelatin solution in a collodion bag) is zero at the isoelectric point.

“ә. Тһе charge of the model is positive on the acid side and negative on the alkalin side of the isoelectric point of gelatin and of crystalline egg albumin. “3, The charge of the model increases with the addition of little acid and diminishes with the addition of more acid to isoelectric particles. “4 Тһе charge of the model is diminished by the addition of low concentrations of neutral salts, and the depressing action of the salt increases rapidly with the balancing of that ion of the neutral salt which has the opposite sign of charge to that of the micella.

“Tt has been shown in the preceding chapter that these facts can be explained not only qualitatively but quantitatively from the theory of Donnan’s membrane equilibrium. This quantitative agreement leaves no doubt that the electrical charge of this micella model is caused exclusively by the Donnan equilibrium.” “In Hardy’s experiment with white of egg the particles were роз1- tively charged on the acid side of the isoelectric point and negatively charged on the alkaline side. It can be shown that this is also true for the charges of the suspended particles of powdered gelatin, and that this change of sign of charge of these particles by going from the acid to the alkaline side of the isoelectric point is accompanied by a change in the sign of the value (pH inside micelle minus pH outside).”

In the same volume Loeb offers the following discussion of “the origin of the electrical charges of living cells and tissues": “In his first paper on the theory of membrane equilibria Donnan suggested that the membrane potentials postulated by his theory might contribute towards an explanation of the action of nerves and even of electrical fish. In 1911 the writer suggested to Dr. Beutner that he investigate the P. D. between such organs as apples, or leaves of the rubber plant, and water, instead of the P. D. of muscles or nerves, which had usually been used by physiologists for this purpose. In these experiments Dr. Beutner made the important observation that the P. D. between the surface of an apple or a leaf was a maximum, when the bounding liquid was pure water, while the P. D. was depressed when a salt was added to the water, the depressing effect on the P. D. increasing with the concentration of the salt. Mac- Donald had observed a similar phenomenon, namely, the increase in P. D. between nerve and surrounding salt solution with increasing dilution. Donnan’s theory was not known to us and we were not able to give an explanation of the depressing effect of salt on the

“A search was made for those substances in the cortex of an apple or leaf which might be responsible for these peculiar concentration effects on the P. D. When the P. D. between solid gels of gelatin and of coagulated egg albumin and water was investigated, no potential differences were observed, to the great surprise and disappointment of the writer, who had hoped that the investigations of the P. D. might lead to an explanation of the antagonistic ion effects in which he was then interested. It is possible that the negative results with protein were due to the fact that the measurements were accidentally made near the isoelectric point. Оп the other hand, it was found that there existed a P. D. at the boundary of lipoids (lecithin dissolved in guaiacol) which was depressed by the addition of salts and the more the higher tlie concentration of the salt.

“This analogy between lipoids and living cells gave us the impression that the proteins had no share in the potential differences observed between living tissues or living cells and watery solutions. The experiments recorded in this chapter leave no doubt that this conclusion was wrong; any ion in a cell or on its surface which cannot diffuse into the surrounding watery solution (no matter whether the ion is a protein or a fatty acid or some complicated lipoid or a complicated carbohydrate or even a crystalloid) сап ог must give rise to a P. D. which is depressed when a diffusible salt is added to the surrounding watery solution.

“The idea that lipoids are the substances responsible for the P. D. of tissues led Beutner to an extensive and most interesting investigation of the P. D. at the boundary of water-immiscible substances and water. He found always a depressing effect of the addition of salt. Beutner tried to explain this on the basis of differences in the electrolytic dissociation in the watery and the water-immiscible (oily) phase. Such an explanation cannot be applied to the experiments with protein solutions and yet these latter solutions also show the depressing effect of the addition of salt on the P. D. in a most striking way. In this latter case the depressing effect of the salt on the P. D. is due to the Donnan equilibrium, and there is no reason why the theory of membrane equilibria should not apply to the P. D. between oily and watery phases, since this theory only demands that one ion of the oily phase should be prevented from migrating into the watery phase. Any lipoid ion would fulfill this postulate of the theory. The peculiarities of electrolytic dissociation found by Beutner in non-aqueous solutions must, however, influence the Donnan equilibrium in a secondary way, since this equilibrium depends upon ionization.”

Ivanow’s conclusions regarding the reversible action between carbohydrates and fatty acids is cited by Haas and Hill: “Туапо\ considers that there is no real difference between the saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in their power to give origin to carbohydrates. The difference in their amounts is due to the more rapid conversion of the unsaturated variety. However this may be, the salient feature in the germination of a fat-containing seed is the conversion of the fat into carbohydrate, the reverse to what obtains during the maturation of the seed. The change is affected by the activity of lipase which hydrolyses the fat into glycerol and fatty acid.