Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution

As to the farmers' unions for buying seed, exporting vegetables to England and so on, they become uni- versal. The same is seen in Belgium. In 1896, seven years after peasants' guilds had been started, first in the Flemish part of the country, and four years only after they were introduced in the Walloon portion of Belgium, there were already 207 such guilds, with a membership of 10,000 {Annuaire de la Science Agronomique, vol. I. (2), 1896, pp. 148 and 149).

Agricultural co-operation in Nether- lands, 327 ; in Belgium, 328. See also Syndicats, Artels. Agricultural implements, improved in village commvmities, 257 Aleoutes, 91, 95 seq. ; in stone age still, 96 ; peacefulness, 96 ; peri- odical distributions of accumu- lated wealth, 97; code of morality, AUthing, law recited at, 158 Alpine Clubs, 280 Altum, Dr. B., on destruction of the Anthropological Society of Paris, questions answered, 92, 93 ; on cannibalism, 105

Architecture, mediaeval, 210 seq. ; communal inspiration, 210 ; me- chanical achievements, 2 ii Asara, on sociability in the Tree- creepers' family of birds, 312 Associations of animals : family, group, society, 53 ; in villages, Aborigines, 92 n. ; code of mor- ality, \oon. Austria, destruction of village Baker, S. W., hunting associations of lions, 40 ; societies of ele- phants, 50 Barbarians, mutual aid among the, 1 1 5-1 52 ; migrations dissociating them, 120; village-community institutions worked out by, 120 ; justice rendered by village folk- mote, 131 ; fred and wergeld, 132, 133 ; amount of composition payment, 133 ; settling of peace, 134 ; mild punishments, 134 ; tribes now living under the insti- tutions of, 138 J^^.; clearing for- ests, colonizing, 155

Bates, W., on Darwinism, xiv ; "campos" of termites, 18; on Brazil vultures, 22 ; destruction of winged ants, 70 ; on swarms of butterflies, 301 ; scarcity of animal population in Brazil, 309 ; bird-societies, 312 Bees, mutual aid with, 16-18 ; anti- social instincts among them, 17 Belgium, forced sale of communal lands, 235 ; fanner's unions, 328 Bogisic,'on joint family with the Serbs and the Croates, 321 Buchenberger, A., on destruction of village community in Belgium, 235 ; on agricultural co-operation in Germany, 248, 249.

Blicher, K., addenda to Laveleye's Primitive Property, \ii, iy:)^n.; agricultural co-operation in Ger- many, 248 CannibEilism : discussion at Paris Anthropological Society, 105 ; probably originated during Glacial period, 106; religious character of, in Fiji and Mexico, Children, mutual support amongst, 285 ; purchase of, for factories in England, 290 Cibrario, L., mediaeval economics in Italy, 183 ; on slavery and serfdom, 219 Clan, its organization with primi- tive men, 78-88 ; opposed to

Clan-marriage, 86 ; with Semites, Aryans, Australians, Red Indians, Eskimos, etc., 87 ; Appendix Colonization, by village communi- ties, 130; by mediaeval cities, Competition in Nature, theory of, analyzed, 60-75 ; Darwin's argu- ments to prove it, 61 ; indirect argument in favour of it, 63 seq. ; natural checks to it, 70 ; is it an element of progressive evolution, 70 ; adaptations to avoid it, 74, Convention, French, edicts to de- stroy village community, 23 1 ;law against coalitions of workers, 265

Coues, Dr. E., on Birds of Kergue- len Island, 25 ; cliff-swallows, and falcon, 35 ; birds of Dacota, Crofters' Commission, 237 Cross, market-, 190 Cunow,Heinrich,village community France, 232 Dancing among birds, 55, 56 Danish co-operators in Siberia, Darwin, Charles, on struggle for life, vii, I ; on same subject, in Descent of Man, x, 2 ; Bates on his ideas, xiv ; Malthusian influence, 3 ; his followers, 4, 6, 9 ; hunting associations of kites, 21 ; fight of hamadryas, 52 ; dancing among birds, 55; features useful in struggle for life, 57 ; compassion among pelicans, 59 ; struggle for life and competition, analysis of this theory, 60-75 > arguments of Darwin in favour of, 61; metaphoric sense of " ex- termination more probable, 63 ; Malthus' " arithmetical argu- ment," 68; over-population and natural checks to, 68-72 ; how animals avoid competition, 72- 75 ; misuse made of his termin- ology, 78; Man originated from a sociable species, 79 ; on Man's sociable qualities as a factor of evolution, no

on Darwinism, xiv Darwinists, vii ; Russian, 9 Dasent, George, Burnt Njal saga, Dayaks, their habits, 91 ; their con- ception of justice, 109 ; exagger- ations of recent writers, 109, no Desiccation, a cause of migrations, 118; of post-pliocene lakes, iiZn. Dixon, Ch., flights of birds for pleasure, 23 ; bird-mountains, 34 ; gatherings before migrating, 38 ; destruction of bird-life by cold, 72; on aquatic birds' associa- tions, 305 ; on lapwings, 310

England, village community in, 121; mediaeval, 182 «.; destruc- tion of village community, 233 seq. ; present survivals of village community, 236 seq. parishes, 213 Equality, institutions for maintain- ing it, 113 Equus Przewalski, 47, 67 Erskine, on self-sacrifice of old Evolution, progressive: mutual aid its main factor, x, 7-9 ; is it fos- tered by competition, 73 Falcon, red-throated, in bands, 22 ; in South Russian Steppes, 22 Falke, Joh., on mediaeval condi- tions of labour, 194 ; on Hansa,

Appendix VII, 313-320 Fame Islands, 305 Federalism, principles of, 220 Federations of barbarian stems, Florence, revolution of minor arts, 198 and «. ; fights against land- lords, 202, 203 n. ; head of a league of cities, 205 ; league of villages in its contado, 206 ; flourishing state of country dependent upon it, 210 n. ; words of its Council, 213; its schools and hospitals, 214 n.; its fifteenth-century re- volution, 221 Folkmote, its attributions in vil- lages, 121 ; judicial fiinctions of,

in recent descriptions, 95 Fuego, Terra di, shell-heaps, 82 Fustel de Coulanges, on village Glacial period, 81 ; time of probable origin of cannibalism, 106 Gomme, G. L., on folkmote in London, 167 n. ; modern sur- vivals of village community, 236, Grey, Adm., on Australians, 92 ; savage conception of justice, 112 n. Hegel, Carl, history of German mediseval cities, 189; their origin, Hobbes, xv ; war of each against all, 77 ; his followers, 78 ; his main error, 78

Hodder, Edwin, Lije of Seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, 288, 290 Horses, 46 ; half wild in Asia, 46 effects of droughts upon, 47 wild in Tibet, 47 ; origin of, 66 after a drought, 73 Houzeau, on animal sociability, 6 ; prairie- wolves, 41 ; sociability diminishes in decaying species, mutual support, 284 n. He de France, 217 Inama-Stemegg, on formation of Joint family as a phasis of civiliza- tion, 123 ; with the Ossetes, 146 ; with the South Slavonians, 320,

Kamtchatka bears, 42 Karl the Great, 164 Kaufmann, early significance of Societies of youngsters, 307 Kkarouba, 142 Khevsoures, return to tribal law, Kihlakunta, 122 Kilkenny ordinance, 184 King, double origin of authority of Lamprecht, on Franconian law and economics, 1 56 ; on mediaeval economics in Germany, 210 n. Africa, 89 Lifeboat Association, 275 Limulus, II Lincecum, Dr., on harvesting ants, 14 n. Linden, Herman van den, on mer- chant guilds in'Netherlands, 326 Linlithgow, 183 n. Linnseus, on aphides and ants, 14 Lipari Islands, 126 Little Russians, village community

with the, 253 Lives, village community of, 122 Loans in mediseval cities, 220 Lombardian law, 161 Lombardian League, 205 Lombardy, struggle against nobles, Lyons, unsuccessful revolution of minor crafts, 199 n. ; duration of struggles for emancipation, 200 n. Market in mediaeval city. Appendix XI, 326 ; its protection, 189 seq. Moffat, 89 ; on self-sacrifice of old relatives with the savages, 104 Moggridge, J. T., on harvesting ants and trapdoor spiders, 12, 14 n.

Monkeys, sociability of, 50-52 ; fight of hamadryas against Brehm, 52 ; against the Kozloff expedi- tion in Tibet, 52 ; family habits Moodie, 91 Moors, English, 72 Moral feeling developed in animals Morocco, 144 Mortmain, 201 Moscou, Bulletin des Naturalistes Motacilla alba. See Wagtails Mother's clan, child belonging to, Mount Tendre, 18 Mugan Steppe, 134 n. Miiller and Temminch, on Dayaks, Netherlands, anabaptism in, 226 ; agrarian inquest, 327 ; on mutual support in villages, 327 ; mer- chant guilds, 328

Nys, Prof E., on military execu- tions, 108 n. ; on Old Irish law, 135 ; on origin of international law, 137 Moffat and Erskine on it, 104 ' " Old Transformist." See Tcherny- shevsky Orang-utan, a decaying species, 52 Orkhon, inscriptions, 119 Ornithological Society, 280 Orsini, The, 219 Ory, village community in Annam, Parental love with savages, loi n. Parentship relations among savages, guilds, 324 Paris Exhibition, bees at, 17 " Parricide," supposed, among

to stop it, 225 «., 226 Pelicans, fishing associations, 23 People, constructive genius of the, 284 seg. Poor and rich, 181 Population, animal, want of, 309 Porter, list of Enclosure Acts, Prairie-dogs, societies of, 43 ; keep sentries in Zoological Gardens, Primitive men, supposed war between, 76 seq. ; their tribes. Rambaud, history of Russia, 167 n. ; on early relations between Nor- mans and Slavonians, 322 Reclus, Elie, on savages' reluctance towards infanticide, 102

Romanlaw,itsgrowth, 125 ; changes the sense attached to the King, 161 ; renewal of study of, 216; Christian Church accepting its principles, 220 Rousseau, J. J., Huxley's apprecia- tion of, 5 ; on origin of society, 54, ']^ ; idealizes savages, in Savages, xv ; described as the gentlest people, 91 ; idealized by Rousseau, in ; identify them- selves with the clan, 112 Schonberg, mediseval conditions of labour, 194 ; craft guilds, 196 Schultz, Dr. Alwin, mediseval con- ditions of labour, 195 n.

Schurtz, H., on age classes and secret societies of savages, 324 prince in Russia, 166 n. Servius TuUius, 321 Seyfferlitz, 33 Shaftesbury, seventh Earl of, on Shooting amongst moderns, 107 n. Siberia, animal life in, vii ; birds Sismondi, on Italian republics, 189 «. ; wars between cities, 204 ; agriculture in Tuscany, 210 ; Lombardy canals, their subse- quent decay, 213 ; growth of royal authority, 216 «. Smith, Adam, on State interven- tion in corporations, 197 n.

Sociability, greater in regions un- inhabited by man, 20; with all animals before the appearance of man, 52 ; cultivated for love of society, 54 ; "joy of life," 54 ; distinctive feature of animal world, 55 ; expressed in dancing and singing, 56 ; best weapon in struggle for life, 57 ; develops moral instincts, 58 ; also sense of justice, 59 ; and sympathy, 60 Societies, opposed by State, 227 ; growing now for all possible purposes, 279 Sparrows warning each other, 24 ; Mr. Gumey on, 24 ; chasing a hawk, 26

Spencer, Herbert, on struggle for life, XV ; on animal colonies, 53 ; influence of surroundings, 65 State, interference in corporations, 196 seq. ; growth of, in sixteenth century, 216; aided by Church, 217 ; its ideals within the cities, 218 ; its victory over the cities, 225 ; spoliation of guilds, 226 ; absorption of all their functions, 227 ; destruction of mutual-aid institutions, 228 ; interference in guilds, 264 seq. ; its ideals favoured, 278

Steffen, Gustaf, on medieval con- ditions of labour in England, 194 n. Strikes prosecuted, 265 ; right to, slightly won in England, 267 Struggle for life, its proper sense, v ; checks to multiplication, vii, viii ; " a law of Nature," ix ; Kessler on, x ; its philosophical importance, i ; metaphorical sense, 2 ; Darwin on, 2 ; Dar- winists on, 4 ; Huxley on, 4, 5 ; in Nature, 5 ; Kessler on, 6 ; who are the fittest in it t 57 ; and competition, theory of, ana- lyzed, 60-75, 307

Struggles, the part they play in history, 115 ; subject of historical documents, 116 Sutherland, A., on moral instinct, xviii ; appreciation of Ruber's work, 303 Syevertsoff, N., on Mutual Aid, 9 ; on hunting associations of white- tailed eagles, 20 ; nesting asso- ciations of birds, 33, 312 Tachart, 91 Taine, 231 Taisha, 139 Tartar villages, 147 Taurida, province, village commu- nity in, 253 Taylors, guild of the Merchant, Territorial union, grows up instead of bonds of common descent, 119 seg. ; gods, 120

Tolstoi, Lev Nikolaevich, hay- making in a Russian village, 256 Tribal stage, proved by an im- mense array of facts, 314 seq. Tylor, Edwin, on tribal origin of family, 79 ; on degeneration theory, 83 Veniaminoff, missionary, later Metropolitan of Moscow, on the Aleoutes, 99 seq. ; their code of morality, 99 ; infanticide among Tchukchis prevented by, 103 Wallace, A. R., on struggle for life, I ; on orang-utans, 51 ; features useful in struggle for life, 57 ; struggle for life and competition, theory of, analyzed, 60-75 ; argu- ments of Wallace in favour of, 62, 63 ; metaphoric sense of " extermination " more probable, 63 ; migration factor, 65-67 ; over - population and natural checks to, 68-72 ; how animals

thrushes, 61 n. Walt, Johan van der, 89 Walter, on village community in cities, 189 n. Weasels, 40 Weather, effect on insects, on birds, culture, 248 Westphalian League, 205 Whewell, on mediteval inventions, Women, mockeries in case of small faults, with the Eskimos, 96; in the tribe, 112 ; educational institu- tions for, in Russia, 281 n.